integrating theory--self image

In Chapter 36 Griffin brings closure to the text and to his discussion of communication theories. Although most textbooks have an introduction, few have a conclusion. I appreciate Griffin's attention to integrating the vast amount of material covered in the text.

In identifying 10 recurring principles in communication theories. Griffin points out themes across the various theories. This process proves helpful in highlighting similarities, differences, and contradictions in how communication theories conceptualize communication.

Principle 4 focuses on the notion of self-image. I decided to start with this principle because I attended the Carroll Arnold Lecture at the National Communication Association convention on Friday, November 21. Professor Gerry Philipsen from the U of Washington presented the lecture. His speech codes theory is featured in Chapter 32. Griffin notes that Philipsen's work supports communication accommodation theory, which suggests that the more individuals identify with a group, they'll view outsiders as different. In the lecture, Philipsen discussed the complexities of culture and cautioned against more simplistic views. In addition, he noted the difficulties in examining the cultures in which we're embedded because we take them for granted. Also, because so much of our identity is intertwined with culture, any perceived attacks on our culture are also perceived as attacks on our identity.

More information about the lecture is on the National Communication Association website. To view a version of the lecture presented at the University of Washington, go to the UW's Department of Communication news page.

~ Professor Cyborg

muted group theory

The final theory in the text is muted group theory developed in the communication discipline by Cheris Kramarae. Edwin Ardener, a social anthropologist, first suggested the idea of women as a muted group. His coworker, Shirley Ardener, proposed that muted groups present their ideas so they can be understood in public discourse. Kramarae argues that the public-private linguistic distinction exaggerates gender differences.

Kramarae analyzed the metaphors used to describe the internet. She observes that the information superhighway metaphor ignored the start-up costs of internet access that most women around the world can't afford. The new frontier metaphor suggests an anarchistic atmosphere with which women are uncomfortable. In contrast, the democracy metaphor for the internet suggests that the internet's anonymity can encourage women to express themselves. Moreover, the global community metaphor for the internet holds the possibility of women being able to share their concerns with each other.

In her interview with Em Griffin, Cheris Kramarae stated that muted group theory is based on the idea that language does not serve all speakers equally. In Kramarae's critique of the two-culture hypothesis to explain women's and men's interactions, she argues in the interview that the hypothesis ignores issues of exploitation and manipulation. During the interview, Griffin asks Kramarae if there should be men's studies university programs as there are women's studies programs. Kramarae responds that universities themselves are men's studies programs.

~ Professor Cyborg

standpoint theory

Griffin discusses Sandra Harding and Julia Wood's standpoint theory in Chapter 34. These researchers are especially interested in standpoint based on gender. They argue that gender is a cultural construction.

Standpoint is the place from which you view the world. You can think of standpoint as a position, perspective, viewpoint, or outlook. According to standpoint theorists, race, class, gender, and sexual orientation produce different standpoints based on social inequity. Harding and Wood suggest that those who are less powerful can provide a more objective view than those who are more powerful. Thus, standpoint theorists believe that the lives of women and others who are marginalized should provide the grounding for communication research. However, these scholars reject postmodernists' absolute relativism or the notion that one perspective cannot be evaluated as more useful than another. Because she is committed to critiquing an androcentric world, Wood believes that a sense of solidarity among women is politically necessary.

Other scholars prior to Harding and Wood have discussed the idea of standpoint. For example, Marx and Engels' proletarian standpoint referred to the impoverished poor. Standpoint theorists argue that knowledge is situated and partial, but also maintain that those in less privileged groups have more complete knowledge than those higher in the social hierarchy. Therefore, starting research from the standpoint of marginalized groups results in strong objectivity. In contrast, starting research from the standpoint of dominant groups results in weak objectivity. Some critics assert that the concept of strong objectivity is inherently contradictory.

In the section on interactive universalism, Griffin discusses Seyla Benhabib's argument that a universalist ethic is possible if it is contextually sensitive. At the end of the chapter, Griffin observes that feminist scholars are concerned that standpoint theory underestimates the role of language in expressing an individual's standpoint.

~ Professor Cyborg

gender and communication

Griffin prefaces the final theories he discusses in the section on gender and communication. He notes that "most of us believe that women and men interact differently." These differences have been popularized in books such as Men are from Mars, Women are from Venus by John Gray. In an article published in the Southern Communication Journal several years ago, Julia Wood argues persuasively that such popular press notions are inconsistent with empirical research. For example, she states, "well-grounded research refutes three of Gray's claims about the sexes' desires to be needed and cherished" (p. 204). Most important, Wood argues, is that accepting stereotypes of women and men means that "we should neither challenge nor try to change how we act" (p. 208).

Similar to Wood's argument, Griffin presents three cautions about the assumptions you may have regarding gender differences. First, he notes that empirical research has found more similarities in the ways in which women and men communicate than differences. Second, communication styles vary more within each group (within women and within men) than between women and men. Third, sex is grounded in biology whereas gender is socially-constructed. So what is considered feminine and what is considered masculine arise through our interactions with others.

If you're interested in reading the Wood article, the citation is:
Wood, J. (2002). A critical response to John Gray's Mars and Venus Portrayals of men and women. Southern Communication Journal, 67, 201-210.

~ Professor Cyborg

speech codes theory

Chapter 32 discusses Gerry Philipsen's speech codes theory. Dr. Philipsen is a professor of communication at the University of Washington and will be honored at the on November 21 at 2008 National Communication Association convention November as the Carroll C. Arnold Distinguished Lecturer. His talk, "Coming to Terms with Cultures," will feature is work in this area of communication studies.

Philipsen changed the name of his theory from "ethnography of communication" to "speech codes theory" because he wanted to move from description to explanation and prediction. According to Philipsen, the culture of Nacirema is practiced by a majority of Americans. According to Philipsen's theory, a distinctive culture will always have a distinctive speech code. For example, in Teamsterville conversation is laced with assurances of common place among those in the neighborhood.

Applying Philipsen's theory, Tamar Katriel studied dugri in Israel, which is a blunt form of straight talk. Dwight Conquergood's research on Chicago street gangs is an example of performance ethnography. Philipsen's theory includes six propositions. The sixth proposition suggests that by a thoughtful use of shared speech codes, participants can guide metacommunication. Speech codes theory has been criticized because Philipsen is silent about power relationships.

In the interview with Em Griffin, Gerry Philipsen said that his current research stems from the Nacirema Code, which emphasizes the individual as unique. In his interview, Philipsen argues that ethnography is a method.

~ Professor Cyborg

face-negotiation theory

Stella Ting-Toomey developed face-negotiation theory, discussed in Chapter 31. Griffin begins the chapter by discussing a model of negotiation that includes techniques such as brainstorming and performing a reality check, noting that this type of third-party mediation doesn't work across cultures. In exploring conflict, Ting-Toomey uses "face" as a metaphor for the individual's public self-image. Ting-Toomey's research is based on the notion of individualistic (about one-third of world's population) and collectivistic (about two-thirds of the world's population) cultures. Individualistic cultures have an "I" identity and collectivistic cultures have a "we" identity.

Ting-Toomey defines face restoration as facework used to preserve autonomy and personal freedom. Face giving is facework that supports another's need for inclusion.

In Ting-Toomey and Oetzel's cultural map of eight conflict management styles the obliging approach to conflict management is associated with a very high concern for others' face and a very low concern for one's own face. The dominating approach to conflict management is associated with a low concern for others' face and a high concern for one's own face. The integrating approach is associated with a high concern for others' face and a high concern for one's own face. The passive aggression approach demonstrates a high concern for self-face and a moderate concern for others' face. The emotional expression approach is concerned with letting feelings show. Ting-Toomey found in her research that the third-party help approach to conflict management is used in both individualistic and collectivistic cultures, but defined in different ways.

In applying Ting-Toomey's work in face-negotiation theory, the author of your text argues that knowledge is the most important dimension of facework competence. Mindfulness involves seeking multiple perspectives on the same event.

In her interview with Em Griffin, Stella Ting-Toomey defines a(n) independent self-construal as emphasizing personal initiative, achievement, and accountability. She also explains that an interdependent self-construal emphasizes relational harmony and cooperation.

~ Professor Cyborg

intercultural communication and communication accommodation theory

Blogging is optional for students this week, but not for me. Today I'll cover intercultural communication and communication accommodation theory.

In the introduction to this section of the text, Griffin notes that Gerry Philipsen defines the basis of culture as a code. Griffin then goes on to discuss Hofstede's four dimensions of culture. Power distance refers to the extent to which less powerful members of a society accept the unequal distribution of power. Clearly defined sex roles are associated with Hofstede's masculinity dimension of culture. Hofstede's uncertainty avoidance dimension refers to the degree to which people feel threatened by ambiguity. Group loyalty is associated with Hofstede's individualism dimension of culture. Individualistic cultures tend to rely on message content in their interactions with others. In contrast, collectivistic cultures tend to rely on message context in their interactions with others.

Howard Giles' communication accommodation theory, associated with the socio-psychological tradition, was originally called speech accommodation theory. According to Giles, the process of adapting behavior to be more similar to the other person is convergence. The desire for social approval provides the main motivation to converge. Divergence occurs when you accentuate the differences between yourself and another person. When communicators use overaccommodation their talk is demeaning or patronizing.

Griffin using the context of intergenerational communication to illustrate communication accommodation theory as much of Giles' work has been in this area of communication. Rigidly held stereotypes contribute to the impression of a communication encounter being an intergroup experience. For accommodation, what is ultimately important is not how a communicator converges or diverges, but the other person's perceptions of the behaviors. Giles relies on attribution theory to help explain the process of interpreting another’s behavior. Listeners who interpret convergence as a speaker’s desire to break down cultural barriers react favorably.

In critiquing communication accommodation theory, Griffin notes that relative simplicity is the criterion of a good theory that's most problematic for Giles' work.

~ Professor Cyborg