integrating theory--dialogue

As Griffin points out in Chapter 36, a number of communication theories center on the notion of dialogue, the final principle in the list. In the public speaking book I mentioned in my previous entry, dialogue plays a prominent role, particularly in the listening part of public speaking. In the book, I argue that ethical public speaking requires dialogue, in which speakers and listeners communicate with each other to create meaningful communication. Dialogue focuses primarily on content, taking a collaborative approach in which listeners invite speakers to express their ideas. Listeners are concerned more with arguments, reasoning, evidence, and claims rather than with criticizing delivery.

In the book I go on to describe a recent survey of employee satisfaction in which WL Gore & Associates was ranked at the top of the list. The company's success stemmed from creating effective dialogue between subordinates and supervisors. In all highly-ranked companies, bosses genuinely sought out employee feedback, then listened to and acted on their concerns. For companies where bosses talked a lot and listened little, employees reported scant confidence in the company’s leadership, greater levels of stress, and a strong desire to find a new job. Although Griffin's "cause for pause" indicates that dialogue is difficult to define and achieve, it's still a critical part of effective communication, as so many theorists point out.

~ Professor Cyborg

integrating theory--audience adaptation

I just published a public speaking textbook, Public Speaking: The Evolving Art, with Wadsworth, so I was especially interested in the section in the final chapter on audience adaption, Principle 7. Many theories address the need for audience adaptation in effective communication, but the classic theory is Aristotle's work. Aristotle took a systematic approach to studying rhetoric (or public speaking), writing The Rhetoric over the course of nine years, 342-330 B.C.E. He emphasized the importance of adapting speeches to the specific situation and audience. Much of the research in effective message design stems from Aristotle's initial discussion of the three proofs used in rhetoric: logos, pathos, and ethos. And research in credibility is grounded more specifically in Aristotle's conceptualization of ethos, or the speaker's character. In writing the public speaking book, my coauthor and I were influenced in part by the work of Aristotle. We also addressed mindfulness, particularly in the listener's role. One point we make in the book is that although you probably think of audience adaptation primarily in the public speaking context, you adapt to audiences in a range of situations, such as at work, with your friends, and in your classes.

Griffin's "cause for pause" in the principle of audience adaptation suggests that communicators sometimes try to adapt too much to what they think are the audience's expectations. The recent presidential campaign provided several examples of that. In such cases, audience members question the authenticity of the message and wonder about the candidate's true beliefs.

~ Professor Cyborg

integrating theory--self image

In Chapter 36 Griffin brings closure to the text and to his discussion of communication theories. Although most textbooks have an introduction, few have a conclusion. I appreciate Griffin's attention to integrating the vast amount of material covered in the text.

In identifying 10 recurring principles in communication theories. Griffin points out themes across the various theories. This process proves helpful in highlighting similarities, differences, and contradictions in how communication theories conceptualize communication.

Principle 4 focuses on the notion of self-image. I decided to start with this principle because I attended the Carroll Arnold Lecture at the National Communication Association convention on Friday, November 21. Professor Gerry Philipsen from the U of Washington presented the lecture. His speech codes theory is featured in Chapter 32. Griffin notes that Philipsen's work supports communication accommodation theory, which suggests that the more individuals identify with a group, they'll view outsiders as different. In the lecture, Philipsen discussed the complexities of culture and cautioned against more simplistic views. In addition, he noted the difficulties in examining the cultures in which we're embedded because we take them for granted. Also, because so much of our identity is intertwined with culture, any perceived attacks on our culture are also perceived as attacks on our identity.

More information about the lecture is on the National Communication Association website. To view a version of the lecture presented at the University of Washington, go to the UW's Department of Communication news page.

~ Professor Cyborg

muted group theory

The final theory in the text is muted group theory developed in the communication discipline by Cheris Kramarae. Edwin Ardener, a social anthropologist, first suggested the idea of women as a muted group. His coworker, Shirley Ardener, proposed that muted groups present their ideas so they can be understood in public discourse. Kramarae argues that the public-private linguistic distinction exaggerates gender differences.

Kramarae analyzed the metaphors used to describe the internet. She observes that the information superhighway metaphor ignored the start-up costs of internet access that most women around the world can't afford. The new frontier metaphor suggests an anarchistic atmosphere with which women are uncomfortable. In contrast, the democracy metaphor for the internet suggests that the internet's anonymity can encourage women to express themselves. Moreover, the global community metaphor for the internet holds the possibility of women being able to share their concerns with each other.

In her interview with Em Griffin, Cheris Kramarae stated that muted group theory is based on the idea that language does not serve all speakers equally. In Kramarae's critique of the two-culture hypothesis to explain women's and men's interactions, she argues in the interview that the hypothesis ignores issues of exploitation and manipulation. During the interview, Griffin asks Kramarae if there should be men's studies university programs as there are women's studies programs. Kramarae responds that universities themselves are men's studies programs.

~ Professor Cyborg

standpoint theory

Griffin discusses Sandra Harding and Julia Wood's standpoint theory in Chapter 34. These researchers are especially interested in standpoint based on gender. They argue that gender is a cultural construction.

Standpoint is the place from which you view the world. You can think of standpoint as a position, perspective, viewpoint, or outlook. According to standpoint theorists, race, class, gender, and sexual orientation produce different standpoints based on social inequity. Harding and Wood suggest that those who are less powerful can provide a more objective view than those who are more powerful. Thus, standpoint theorists believe that the lives of women and others who are marginalized should provide the grounding for communication research. However, these scholars reject postmodernists' absolute relativism or the notion that one perspective cannot be evaluated as more useful than another. Because she is committed to critiquing an androcentric world, Wood believes that a sense of solidarity among women is politically necessary.

Other scholars prior to Harding and Wood have discussed the idea of standpoint. For example, Marx and Engels' proletarian standpoint referred to the impoverished poor. Standpoint theorists argue that knowledge is situated and partial, but also maintain that those in less privileged groups have more complete knowledge than those higher in the social hierarchy. Therefore, starting research from the standpoint of marginalized groups results in strong objectivity. In contrast, starting research from the standpoint of dominant groups results in weak objectivity. Some critics assert that the concept of strong objectivity is inherently contradictory.

In the section on interactive universalism, Griffin discusses Seyla Benhabib's argument that a universalist ethic is possible if it is contextually sensitive. At the end of the chapter, Griffin observes that feminist scholars are concerned that standpoint theory underestimates the role of language in expressing an individual's standpoint.

~ Professor Cyborg

gender and communication

Griffin prefaces the final theories he discusses in the section on gender and communication. He notes that "most of us believe that women and men interact differently." These differences have been popularized in books such as Men are from Mars, Women are from Venus by John Gray. In an article published in the Southern Communication Journal several years ago, Julia Wood argues persuasively that such popular press notions are inconsistent with empirical research. For example, she states, "well-grounded research refutes three of Gray's claims about the sexes' desires to be needed and cherished" (p. 204). Most important, Wood argues, is that accepting stereotypes of women and men means that "we should neither challenge nor try to change how we act" (p. 208).

Similar to Wood's argument, Griffin presents three cautions about the assumptions you may have regarding gender differences. First, he notes that empirical research has found more similarities in the ways in which women and men communicate than differences. Second, communication styles vary more within each group (within women and within men) than between women and men. Third, sex is grounded in biology whereas gender is socially-constructed. So what is considered feminine and what is considered masculine arise through our interactions with others.

If you're interested in reading the Wood article, the citation is:
Wood, J. (2002). A critical response to John Gray's Mars and Venus Portrayals of men and women. Southern Communication Journal, 67, 201-210.

~ Professor Cyborg

speech codes theory

Chapter 32 discusses Gerry Philipsen's speech codes theory. Dr. Philipsen is a professor of communication at the University of Washington and will be honored at the on November 21 at 2008 National Communication Association convention November as the Carroll C. Arnold Distinguished Lecturer. His talk, "Coming to Terms with Cultures," will feature is work in this area of communication studies.

Philipsen changed the name of his theory from "ethnography of communication" to "speech codes theory" because he wanted to move from description to explanation and prediction. According to Philipsen, the culture of Nacirema is practiced by a majority of Americans. According to Philipsen's theory, a distinctive culture will always have a distinctive speech code. For example, in Teamsterville conversation is laced with assurances of common place among those in the neighborhood.

Applying Philipsen's theory, Tamar Katriel studied dugri in Israel, which is a blunt form of straight talk. Dwight Conquergood's research on Chicago street gangs is an example of performance ethnography. Philipsen's theory includes six propositions. The sixth proposition suggests that by a thoughtful use of shared speech codes, participants can guide metacommunication. Speech codes theory has been criticized because Philipsen is silent about power relationships.

In the interview with Em Griffin, Gerry Philipsen said that his current research stems from the Nacirema Code, which emphasizes the individual as unique. In his interview, Philipsen argues that ethnography is a method.

~ Professor Cyborg